Short answer
Islam protects non-Muslims who live in peace with Muslims: their life, property and dignity, their freedom to believe and worship, and fair treatment in law. The Prophet ﷺ warned that whoever kills a non-Muslim under a covenant of peace will not smell the fragrance of Paradise. The four schools agree on these protections, with some differences in criminal penalties.
In the Hanafi school a non-Muslim citizen (dhimmi) or a person under a peace agreement has the same protection of life and property as a Muslim. Killing, robbing or wronging them is haram, and Hanafi law applies retaliation to a Muslim who murders a dhimmi. They keep their places of worship and practise their faith, and may not be forced into Islam.
Other madhhabs
- Shafi'i
- A Muslim is not executed in retaliation for killing a non-Muslim, based on the hadith that a believer is not killed for a disbeliever; blood money and punishment apply, and the act remains a grave sin.
- Hanbali
- Same as the Shafi'i view on retaliation.
- Maliki
- No retaliation in ordinary cases, but a treacherous premeditated murder (qatl al-ghila) is punished by death whoever the victim.
Explanation
The Quran sets the rule: Allah does not forbid you from being righteous and just toward those who do not fight you over religion or drive you from your homes. It commands justice even toward people you dislike, and states "there shall be no compulsion in religion". It even mentions monasteries, churches and synagogues among the places of worship Allah protects.
Classical Islamic law turned this into concrete rights for non-Muslims living under Muslim rule:
- Life: the Prophet ﷺ said whoever kills a person under a covenant will not smell the fragrance of Paradise.
- Property and dignity: he said he would argue on the Day of Judgement against anyone who wrongs such a person, cuts their rights or burdens them beyond their means.
- Religion: their churches and synagogues stand, and they follow their own laws in family matters.
- Welfare: Abu Yusuf records in Kitab al-Kharaj that Umar granted an old Jewish man a stipend from the public treasury.
Today Muslims in the US, the UK and Europe are themselves a minority. The same principles apply in daily life: honesty with colleagues, kindness to neighbours, keeping contracts and respecting other people's faith even while disagreeing with it. Tolerance in Islam means living together justly, not saying all beliefs are the same. See neighbours in Islam and friendship with non-Muslims.
The evidence
Quran, Surah Al-Mumtahana 60:8
لَّا يَنْهَىٰكُمُ ٱللَّهُ عَنِ ٱلَّذِينَ لَمْ يُقَٰتِلُوكُمْ فِى ٱلدِّينِ وَلَمْ يُخْرِجُوكُم مِّن دِيَٰرِكُمْ أَن تَبَرُّوهُمْ وَتُقْسِطُوٓا۟ إِلَيْهِمْ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يُحِبُّ ٱلْمُقْسِطِينَ ﴿٨﴾
Allah does not forbid you from those who do not fight you because of religion and do not expel you from your homes - from being righteous toward them and acting justly toward them. Indeed, Allah loves those who act justly.
Kindness and justice toward peaceful non-Muslims are encouraged.
Quran, Surah Al-Baqara 2:256
لَآ إِكْرَاهَ فِى ٱلدِّينِ ۖ قَد تَّبَيَّنَ ٱلرُّشْدُ مِنَ ٱلْغَىِّ ۚ فَمَن يَكْفُرْ بِٱلطَّٰغُوتِ وَيُؤْمِنۢ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدِ ٱسْتَمْسَكَ بِٱلْعُرْوَةِ ٱلْوُثْقَىٰ لَا ٱنفِصَامَ لَهَا ۗ وَٱللَّهُ سَمِيعٌ عَلِيمٌ ﴿٢٥٦﴾
There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course has become clear from the wrong. So whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah has grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing.
No one may be forced into Islam.
Quran, Surah Al-Hajj 22:40
ٱلَّذِينَ أُخْرِجُوا۟ مِن دِيَٰرِهِم بِغَيْرِ حَقٍّ إِلَّآ أَن يَقُولُوا۟ رَبُّنَا ٱللَّهُ ۗ وَلَوْلَا دَفْعُ ٱللَّهِ ٱلنَّاسَ بَعْضَهُم بِبَعْضٍۢ لَّهُدِّمَتْ صَوَٰمِعُ وَبِيَعٌۭ وَصَلَوَٰتٌۭ وَمَسَٰجِدُ يُذْكَرُ فِيهَا ٱسْمُ ٱللَّهِ كَثِيرًۭا ۗ وَلَيَنصُرَنَّ ٱللَّهُ مَن يَنصُرُهُۥٓ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَقَوِىٌّ عَزِيزٌ ﴿٤٠﴾
[They are] those who have been evicted from their homes without right - only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.
The Quran counts churches and synagogues among places whose destruction Allah prevents.
Quran, Surah Al-Maaida 5:8
يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ كُونُوا۟ قَوَّٰمِينَ لِلَّهِ شُهَدَآءَ بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۖ وَلَا يَجْرِمَنَّكُمْ شَنَـَٔانُ قَوْمٍ عَلَىٰٓ أَلَّا تَعْدِلُوا۟ ۚ ٱعْدِلُوا۟ هُوَ أَقْرَبُ لِلتَّقْوَىٰ ۖ وَٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ خَبِيرٌۢ بِمَا تَعْمَلُونَ ﴿٨﴾
O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah; indeed, Allah is Acquainted with what you do.
Justice is owed to everyone, whatever their faith.
Sahih al-Bukhari 3166
Sahih... من قتل معاهدا لم يرح رائحة الجنة ...
"Whoever kills a person under a covenant of protection will not smell the fragrance of Paradise."
The life of a non-Muslim living in peace is sacred.
Sunan Abi Dawud 3052
Grading to be checked... ألا من ظلم معاهدا أو انتقصه أو كلفه فوق طاقته ...
"Whoever wrongs a person under covenant, takes away his rights or burdens him beyond his ability, I will argue against him on the Day of Resurrection."
The Prophet ﷺ himself will stand against those who wrong protected non-Muslims.
Where the ruling is recorded
- al-Hidaya, Kitab al-Jinayat, the chapter on what requires retaliation. The Hanafi position that a Muslim is subject to retaliation for murdering a dhimmi.
- Bada'i al-Sana'i, Kitab al-Siyar, the section on the dhimma contract. Sets out the protections owed to non-Muslim citizens.
- al-Mughni (Ibn Qudama), Kitab al-Jirah. The majority view on retaliation.
Checked by our team. For a more accurate answer to your own situation, consult a scholar. Quran translation by Sahih International. Hadith Arabic from the standard editions of the six books and the Muwatta, with gradings as recorded there; the English is our own rendering. Spotted a mistake? Tell us.